Which population groups are at risk and why?
This section will focus on core epidemiological issues that take account of fixed risk factors (such as age, gender, ethnicity, family history) and modifiable risk factors (such as behaviour). The wider determinants of health (such as housing, transport and environment) are also considered.
Age
For both sexual and criminal child exploitation adolescents aged 14 to 17 are at most risk, with peak vulnerability around age 15.
Victims of child sexual exploitation are most commonly aged 14 to 17, with age 15 being the peak6.
The Children’s Society’s Counting Lives report highlights that 14 to 17 years olds are the most likely age group to be exploited by criminal gangs, particularly in county lines drug trafficking. Children as young as 7 or 8 have also been targetted7.
Gender
Gendered patterns of exploitation vary by type. According to UK Parliamentary evidence, 80% of children trafficked for criminal or labour exploitation were male, while females were more likely to be trafficked for sexual exploitation8.
Female
A 2025 literature review highlighted that CSE disproportionately affects girls due to gender inequalities, societal perceptions linking vulnerability with femininity and complex family dynamics. It found that girls are more likely to suffer long-term psychological impacts9. A Home Office literature review on group-based child sexual exploitation found that victims are predominately female6.
The National Crime Agency (2025) confirmed that 4 in 5 sexual crimes against children are committed against girls where gender is recorded10.
Male
The Barnardo’s report “Not Just a Girl Thing” (2014) found that around one-third of CSE service users were male. They found boys were more likely to be referred by criminal justice agencies and less likely to self-refer or be identified by education or social services11.
Cases of peer-on-peer abuse or financially motivated sexual extortion (especially online) are experienced by boys and are often underreported due to stigma and lack of awareness.
Transgender and Non-Binary Youth
The Children’s Society highlights that this group of young people may be especially vulnerable to exploitation due to gender dysphoria and lack of support, discrimination and rejection from families and services, and distrust of institutions which can prevent disclosure and access to help. The Children’s Society note that the North-East charity Changing Lives found young people experiences gender dysphoria may be more vulnerable to exploitation and abuse partly due to lack of support.
The Children’s Society highlights that there is a lack of data on trans and non-binary youth exploitation12.
Socioeconomic status
Poverty is a major risk factor to exploitation. Economic hardship can lead to neglect, lack of supervision and increased susceptibility to grooming and coercion. Research has found that poverty often intersects with other risks such as domestic abuse and substance misuse, compounding vulnerability13.
Children who lack adult supervision during school holidays or in single-parent households are at increased vulnerability to exploitation14.
Criminal exploitation (especially through county lines) disproportionately affects children from deprived urban areas. Gangs exploit children to move drugs and money, often using coercion, threats and debt bondage15.
Education
The Children’s Commissioner’s Childhood Local Data on Risks and Needs show that children excluded from school or persistently absent are more likely to be targeted by exploiters. They may lack protective adult relationships and structured environments16.
Mental health
Victims of child sexual abuse can develop mental health conditions17, 18 which can result from and increase susceptibility to exploitation.
Children experiencing multiple adversities, including poverty, domestic violence, parental mental ill-health or addition and exposure to community violence, may have co-occurring mental health challenges which increase vulnerability to grooming and exploitation19.
Ethnicity
A Home Office literature review on group-based child sexual exploitation found that victims are often White, though underreporting among ethnic minorities is a known issue6.
The Children’s Society guidance for the National CSE/A Prevention Programme for England and Wales states there is underreporting and lack of identification amongst Black and Minority Ethnic groups. The guidance states that although The Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre reported 61% of victims (total: 2083) identified were white, 3% were Asian, 1% were Black and 33% unknown, children from minority ethnic backgrounds are likely to be underrepresented in statistics20.
Gypsy, Roma and Traveller Children face systemic exclusion from education which increases vulnerability to exploitation21.
They are more likely to experience neglect and less likely to be effectively safeguarded due to cultural misunderstandings and institutional bias22.
Children who Offend and First-time offenders
Research from The British Journal of Criminology highlights that youth justice practitioners often struggle to identify exploited children due to rigid expectations of what a victim looks like. Many exploited youth do not fit the image of vulnerability which can hinder recognition and support23.
County lines operations often target vulnerable youth, including those with prior justice involvement. The HM Inspectorate of Probation notes that school exclusion, care experiences and prior offending are key risk factors for exploitation24.
A report by Child of the North states that early intervention is critical as without support, first-time offenders may be drawn deeper into exploitative networks25.
Many young people do not recognise that they are being exploited, this is especially true for first-time offenders who may see criminal activity as a form of belonging or survival, rather than coercion24.
Sexual Orientation
LGBTQ+ youth including transgender and non-binary individuals are at increased risk of CSE26 due to factors such as family rejection, social isolation, discrimination in schools and services and lack of inclusive safeguarding practices. The Tackling Child Exploitation Programme notes these young people often go undetected by professionals, face barriers to disclosure and are less likely to be safeguarded effectively27.
Guidance from The Children’s Society and the Tackling Child Exploitation Programme explains that LGBTQ+ youth often experience rejection, isolation and discrimination which can lead to mental health challenges. These vulnerabilities may drive them to seek acceptance in unsafe environments including online spaces or adult venues where they may encounter exploitative individuals28.
The Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse (IICSA) found that institutions often fail to meet the specific needs of LGBTQ+ children29.
Vulnerable Children
A Home Office literature review on group-based child sexual exploitation found that risk factors include being in care or a history of running away. It states looked-after children are disproportionately represented among victims of both sexual and criminal exploitation, their instability and lack of consistent adult support make them more likely to be targeted6.
Children in households with domestic abuse, mental health issues or substance misuse are at increased risk due to reduced parental capacity to protect children and increased exposure to exploitative individuals30.
50% of children in custody have been in care, looked-after-children are disproportionately represented among those exploited often due to disrupted attachments and lack of protective adult relationships19.
Special Educational Needs and Disabilities
A Home Office literature review on group-based child sexual exploitation found that risk factors include having a disability6.
Children with special education needs or disabilities may struggle to understand and report abuse and are often isolated socially30.
A research article from the University of Leeds states 80% of young people in the youth justice system have SEND. These children often face exclusion from mainstream education which increases vulnerability to exploitation. SEND can include neurodevelopmental conditions such as ADHD and autism, which may impair risk awareness and social judgement31.